“For the education & instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for the civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences” (174)
Emerged out of the Great Awakening
Emotional attachment to religion
Focus on proselytization
Propagation through missionary work
In early attempts, Wheelock found Indians ungrateful for his work on them
Some whites thought natives could not be converted without force
Others argued that conversion would still not make them equal with whites, only blacks
Wheelock's impressions
Indian boys were:
Lazy
Did not use furniture
Wore shabby clothes
Were unruly
Think only about the present
Ate a lot, but had no table manners
Goal was “to save the Indians from themselves and to save the English from the Indians”
While capable of teaching his students, their “character” did not change
Native Impressions
At first, a change to learn foreign language and cultures, as well as trades
Children were beaten and yelled at for minor infractions
Emphasis on farming was less like education and more like hard labor
Indians were treated as inferiors, even by English boys their age
The End
Funds came from Europeans in Europe
Europeans in America doubted the school's success
Natives grew increasing upset at student treatment, pulling children out of school
Only 11 Indian students ever graduated
Sunday, April 26, 2009
Florida
A weak Spanish colony with few settlers
To encourage growth, Spain offered freedom to runaway British slaves
Britain created Georgia as a buffer between the colonies and Spain
Spain created Fort Mose in 1738, a town of free blacks north of St. Augustine, to buffer between itself and Britain
Small French colonies also sprung up, threatening Spanish Florida further. Spain was attacked often by France and Britain
Attacks
Pirates and Indian slaves also attacked Spanish settlements.
To survive, the Spanish allied with the Apalachee tribe
Spain continued the mission system to convert freedmen and Indians to Catholicism
Britain, realizing the growing southern threat, allied with the Creeks and attacked the Apalachees. The tribe disbursed and many became slaves
1763
Spain
1763: Britain wins 7 Years War, takes Havana, Cuba from Spain
Spain trades Florida to get Cuba back
Florida becomes British, split into East and West colonies. Thousands of Spanish flee
Apalachee
Defeated by war and disease, Apalachees and other tribes were adopted into local nations
Many moved to present-day Alabama and Louisiana
Apalachees, escaped slaves, and Creeks merged to form a distinct Seminole nation
“tinctured with
Spanish civilization”
(p. 109)
Exiles and Expulsions
England became Britain after merging with Scotland in the early 1700s. East and West Florida, the British Caribbean, and Quebec all had Scottish governors (156)
To encourage growth, Britain offered large land grants to Florida settlers, more if settlers brought slaves (157)
See the peace conference on p. 102, involving the Creek, Cherokees, and Chocktaws
The British hoped settlers would move to Florida or Nova Scotia instead of crossing the Appalachians (94)
The Land Proclamation of 1763 attempted to keep settlers under control and protect the peace between European and Indian empires (map 95)
Previous negotiations made Creeks the most powerful of regional tribes, but by 1763 they had enemies and factions
Floridian Trade
Seminoles traded via canoe throughout the Gulf of Mexico: deerskins, honey, dried fish
British and Spanish colonies traded coffee, rum, sugar, tobacco
The Proclamation Line kept settlers away but encouraged trading licenses
Deerskins were in high demand. Indians rapidly depleted deer populations
More interdependence on international trade led to dependence on foreign goods. Lack of resources led to poverty and social unrest
To encourage growth, Spain offered freedom to runaway British slaves
Britain created Georgia as a buffer between the colonies and Spain
Spain created Fort Mose in 1738, a town of free blacks north of St. Augustine, to buffer between itself and Britain
Small French colonies also sprung up, threatening Spanish Florida further. Spain was attacked often by France and Britain
Attacks
Pirates and Indian slaves also attacked Spanish settlements.
To survive, the Spanish allied with the Apalachee tribe
Spain continued the mission system to convert freedmen and Indians to Catholicism
Britain, realizing the growing southern threat, allied with the Creeks and attacked the Apalachees. The tribe disbursed and many became slaves
1763
Spain
1763: Britain wins 7 Years War, takes Havana, Cuba from Spain
Spain trades Florida to get Cuba back
Florida becomes British, split into East and West colonies. Thousands of Spanish flee
Apalachee
Defeated by war and disease, Apalachees and other tribes were adopted into local nations
Many moved to present-day Alabama and Louisiana
Apalachees, escaped slaves, and Creeks merged to form a distinct Seminole nation
“tinctured with
Spanish civilization”
(p. 109)
Exiles and Expulsions
England became Britain after merging with Scotland in the early 1700s. East and West Florida, the British Caribbean, and Quebec all had Scottish governors (156)
To encourage growth, Britain offered large land grants to Florida settlers, more if settlers brought slaves (157)
See the peace conference on p. 102, involving the Creek, Cherokees, and Chocktaws
The British hoped settlers would move to Florida or Nova Scotia instead of crossing the Appalachians (94)
The Land Proclamation of 1763 attempted to keep settlers under control and protect the peace between European and Indian empires (map 95)
Previous negotiations made Creeks the most powerful of regional tribes, but by 1763 they had enemies and factions
Floridian Trade
Seminoles traded via canoe throughout the Gulf of Mexico: deerskins, honey, dried fish
British and Spanish colonies traded coffee, rum, sugar, tobacco
The Proclamation Line kept settlers away but encouraged trading licenses
Deerskins were in high demand. Indians rapidly depleted deer populations
More interdependence on international trade led to dependence on foreign goods. Lack of resources led to poverty and social unrest
Men, Women, Alcohol
Excessive drinking amongst natives led to:
Injury
Fights
Poor trade decisions
Poverty
Temperance and reorganization
Christian Indians
American missionaries
Prophets and spiritual leaders
The US Government wanted to “civilize” natives. Alcoholism was “uncivilized,” therefore trade must be stopped
Women
Alcohol trade represented and altered female roles in native life
Women held roles in native governments, allowing them to control trade
Women were “go-betweens” bringing liquor from the market to home
Women controlled food production, including grains making alcohol
As time progressed, male-dominated Americans traded with native men instead
Why drink?
Delicious
Drunkenness used in mourning rituals
A gateway to the spiritual world
In some nations alcohol used for dowries
Europeans used liquor to attract traders, then to get the best deal out of them.
Alcohol was increasingly used as currency: 60%-90% of fur trade done in liquor
Gift-giving for trade
Encouraged Indians “to hunt and pay their debts”
White drinking
Whites appeared to have a higher tolerance: “the art of getting drunk”
Whites consumed five times more liquor, but in moderation
Indians drank alcohol until it was gone, a process that could take an entire tribe and several days
Drinking became associated with poor immigrants, crime, and secularism
US banned alcohol trade to Indians in 1802
Missionaries
Christian revival movements entered the frontier, emphasizing temperance
Indian prophets had similar motives and practices
Indian prophets were mostly men, the liquor trade controlled mostly by Indian women
“Backsliding” led to social failures, deaths (6x)
Conversions and temperance revivalists tempered the political and economic agency of native women
Indian Temperance
Handsome Lake was a prophet and temperance advocate for the Iroquois; thought alcohol should be for whites only
Beate of the Delawares pushed reforms
Female respected by some leaders
Also accused of witchcraft
Many women pushed for traditional values
Harder because she's a woman?
“Perhaps the liquor trade continued because alcohol provided many Indians with something that the government could not: a sense of power or a fleeting respite from their troubles” (447)
Injury
Fights
Poor trade decisions
Poverty
Temperance and reorganization
Christian Indians
American missionaries
Prophets and spiritual leaders
The US Government wanted to “civilize” natives. Alcoholism was “uncivilized,” therefore trade must be stopped
Women
Alcohol trade represented and altered female roles in native life
Women held roles in native governments, allowing them to control trade
Women were “go-betweens” bringing liquor from the market to home
Women controlled food production, including grains making alcohol
As time progressed, male-dominated Americans traded with native men instead
Why drink?
Delicious
Drunkenness used in mourning rituals
A gateway to the spiritual world
In some nations alcohol used for dowries
Europeans used liquor to attract traders, then to get the best deal out of them.
Alcohol was increasingly used as currency: 60%-90% of fur trade done in liquor
Gift-giving for trade
Encouraged Indians “to hunt and pay their debts”
White drinking
Whites appeared to have a higher tolerance: “the art of getting drunk”
Whites consumed five times more liquor, but in moderation
Indians drank alcohol until it was gone, a process that could take an entire tribe and several days
Drinking became associated with poor immigrants, crime, and secularism
US banned alcohol trade to Indians in 1802
Missionaries
Christian revival movements entered the frontier, emphasizing temperance
Indian prophets had similar motives and practices
Indian prophets were mostly men, the liquor trade controlled mostly by Indian women
“Backsliding” led to social failures, deaths (6x)
Conversions and temperance revivalists tempered the political and economic agency of native women
Indian Temperance
Handsome Lake was a prophet and temperance advocate for the Iroquois; thought alcohol should be for whites only
Beate of the Delawares pushed reforms
Female respected by some leaders
Also accused of witchcraft
Many women pushed for traditional values
Harder because she's a woman?
“Perhaps the liquor trade continued because alcohol provided many Indians with something that the government could not: a sense of power or a fleeting respite from their troubles” (447)
1763
The Peace of Paris ended the Seven Years' War (9 years, AKA French & Indian War)
Britain wins, taking all mainland claims in North America
Britain had allied with Germany (Hanover), Prussia, Portugal, Iroquois
France had allied with Russia, Sweden, Austria, Germany (Saxony), Spain, Hurons
British aims
Britain feared French control of Ohio territory would strangle their eastern colonies.
Without colonies, France only threatened continental Europe
Quickly they gained the favor of local Indians to fight by proxy
Should Britain defeat France or completely destroy it?
France allowed to keep islands in Caribbean, Newfoundland, and their Senegal colony
1759: Turning Point
British take Quebec
French Atlantic fleet destroyed
Spain felt threatened. Would Britain take South America too? Joined up with France
Britain invades Spanish Cuba, then the Philippines
Before the peace treaty, France secretly gives western Louisiana to Spain
Effects
Britain conquered Canada. The American colonists no longer needed protection from Britain, and the attempt by Parliament to tax the colonists to help pay for the war sparked the American Revolution.
French Quebec colonists were given 18 months to leave; some went to Maine and New Orleans
France and Spain entered a naval arms race. Stronger Bourbon navies made American victory in the Revolutionary War possible.
Debts France incurred in this war and the American Revolution helped cause the French Revolution. The humiliation of the army led to reforms later used by Napoleon.
Prussia survived the war, becoming an important European power. Frederick the Great became one of the most powerful rulers. In 1870 Prussia united Germany.
Russia showed itself to be a major power capable of enormous influence.
Smaller states like The Netherlands and Saxony were becoming increasingly vulnerable.
Spain confirmed that it was a weak state with minimal military power.
While Great Britain, France, and Russia solidified their stance in the world, German and Italian peoples floundered
Britain confirmed itself as the world's dominant naval and economic power
Britain became the dominant power in India, eventually conquering all of it. France slowly left their Indian colonies
Massive war debt by world powers eventually led to worldwide economic collapse
Some non-"Eurocentric" historians believe British control of India made the Industrial Revolution possible
Controlled trade of textiles and dyes
Built Indian railroads, canals, telegraph systems
Britain wins, taking all mainland claims in North America
Britain had allied with Germany (Hanover), Prussia, Portugal, Iroquois
France had allied with Russia, Sweden, Austria, Germany (Saxony), Spain, Hurons
British aims
Britain feared French control of Ohio territory would strangle their eastern colonies.
Without colonies, France only threatened continental Europe
Quickly they gained the favor of local Indians to fight by proxy
Should Britain defeat France or completely destroy it?
France allowed to keep islands in Caribbean, Newfoundland, and their Senegal colony
1759: Turning Point
British take Quebec
French Atlantic fleet destroyed
Spain felt threatened. Would Britain take South America too? Joined up with France
Britain invades Spanish Cuba, then the Philippines
Before the peace treaty, France secretly gives western Louisiana to Spain
Effects
Britain conquered Canada. The American colonists no longer needed protection from Britain, and the attempt by Parliament to tax the colonists to help pay for the war sparked the American Revolution.
French Quebec colonists were given 18 months to leave; some went to Maine and New Orleans
France and Spain entered a naval arms race. Stronger Bourbon navies made American victory in the Revolutionary War possible.
Debts France incurred in this war and the American Revolution helped cause the French Revolution. The humiliation of the army led to reforms later used by Napoleon.
Prussia survived the war, becoming an important European power. Frederick the Great became one of the most powerful rulers. In 1870 Prussia united Germany.
Russia showed itself to be a major power capable of enormous influence.
Smaller states like The Netherlands and Saxony were becoming increasingly vulnerable.
Spain confirmed that it was a weak state with minimal military power.
While Great Britain, France, and Russia solidified their stance in the world, German and Italian peoples floundered
Britain confirmed itself as the world's dominant naval and economic power
Britain became the dominant power in India, eventually conquering all of it. France slowly left their Indian colonies
Massive war debt by world powers eventually led to worldwide economic collapse
Some non-"Eurocentric" historians believe British control of India made the Industrial Revolution possible
Controlled trade of textiles and dyes
Built Indian railroads, canals, telegraph systems
Wednesday, April 23, 2008
Mary Jemison, Part 2
POV
Accounts of the past are subjected to their time, place, and their authors' perception and motives
Future versions of events are seen through similar lenses
“Captivity and Conversion,” Hilary Wyss
“To be heard in the dominant culture, then, Natives must often negotiate story lines written about them with little regard for their particular experiences.”
Final Words
Narratives and conversion stories memorialized native cultures for Europeans
Stories showed how “progress” removed or replaced Indians
When Mary Jemison's narrative came out, segregation was national policy.
Races were separated; she must be Indian or white
A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, 1824, edited by James Seaver
James Seaver
Emphasized “the captive's commitment to Anglo-American culture”
Focused on the cultural and racial differences
Faced and eventually overcome by captives
Captives return to the white settlement
Thrilling, shocking details of frontier hardships
Transformation is feared and struggled against
The problem of "backsliding" or returning to a former way of life haunts the narrative
“A Narrative of the life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, who was taken by the Indians, in the year 1755 [sic],when only about twelve years of age, and has continued to reside amongst them to the present time. Containing an account of the Murder of her Father and his Family; her sufferings; her marriage to two Indians; her troubles with her children; barbarities of the Indians in the French and Revolutionary Wars; the life of her last husband, etc.; and many Historical Facts never before published”
"Strange as it may seem, I loved him!"
Specifically commissioned by some "gentlemen of respectability" to record her narrative not only to preserve certain historical facts but also to "perpetuate the remembrance of the atrocities of the savages in former times"
What about gender roles?
-Women expected to be passive
-Jemison becomes a victim of circumstance
-Biography will teach "pity for the bereaved, benevolence for the destitute, and compassion for the helpless"
Fragility of Conversion
Saw white people a year after capture. Senecas wanted to keep her, hid her away
Some Senecas considered her a witch
Some accused her of having an affair after birthing white babies
Adopted spiritual outlook of the Indians: “connection to the land, to agriculture, and especially to corn reveals important elements of Seneca belief in her life
Accounts of the past are subjected to their time, place, and their authors' perception and motives
Future versions of events are seen through similar lenses
“Captivity and Conversion,” Hilary Wyss
“To be heard in the dominant culture, then, Natives must often negotiate story lines written about them with little regard for their particular experiences.”
Final Words
Narratives and conversion stories memorialized native cultures for Europeans
Stories showed how “progress” removed or replaced Indians
When Mary Jemison's narrative came out, segregation was national policy.
Races were separated; she must be Indian or white
A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, 1824, edited by James Seaver
James Seaver
Emphasized “the captive's commitment to Anglo-American culture”
Focused on the cultural and racial differences
Faced and eventually overcome by captives
Captives return to the white settlement
Thrilling, shocking details of frontier hardships
Transformation is feared and struggled against
The problem of "backsliding" or returning to a former way of life haunts the narrative
“A Narrative of the life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, who was taken by the Indians, in the year 1755 [sic],when only about twelve years of age, and has continued to reside amongst them to the present time. Containing an account of the Murder of her Father and his Family; her sufferings; her marriage to two Indians; her troubles with her children; barbarities of the Indians in the French and Revolutionary Wars; the life of her last husband, etc.; and many Historical Facts never before published”
"Strange as it may seem, I loved him!"
Specifically commissioned by some "gentlemen of respectability" to record her narrative not only to preserve certain historical facts but also to "perpetuate the remembrance of the atrocities of the savages in former times"
What about gender roles?
-Women expected to be passive
-Jemison becomes a victim of circumstance
-Biography will teach "pity for the bereaved, benevolence for the destitute, and compassion for the helpless"
Fragility of Conversion
Saw white people a year after capture. Senecas wanted to keep her, hid her away
Some Senecas considered her a witch
Some accused her of having an affair after birthing white babies
Adopted spiritual outlook of the Indians: “connection to the land, to agriculture, and especially to corn reveals important elements of Seneca belief in her life
Thursday, April 10, 2008
Mary Jemison
Mary Jemison lived in the Genesee Valley with the Seneca nation from her capture at 15 until her death at age 90.
Taken during the French and Indian War, Jemison replaced a brother taken in battle (203)
Natives killed and captured out of revenge for previous actions against them
Captured people took on the role of deceased persons: in family life, occupation, and status
Gender and age did not matter, only willingness to participate in the tribe
Expectations for the new citizen matched the tribe's perceptions of deceased persons
Was forced to marry an Indian, though this appears very rare (204)
Axtell suggests Jemison may have married willingly
Natives persuaded the captured to stay by good acts and equal treatment towards them, not compulsion
Rape and other acts were extremely discouraged. Those guilty of rape were judged by the community
Taken when she was 15, and did not fully assimilate for 3-4 years. (208)
“If I had been taken in infancy, I should have been contented in my situation.”
The older the captive, the harder it was to learn culture
The younger the captive, the easier it was learn language and customs, and forget their white background
The Senecas were “diligent in teaching me their language; and to their great satisfaction I soon learned that I could understand it readily, and speak it fluently.” (209)
Captives were quickly placed in families and “trained” for life in the tribe
By spending time with her “sisters,” Jamison learned basic housekeeping and farming skills, and even advise in finding a spouse
Working as an Indian woman “was not severe . . . probably not harder than that of white women” (211)
Almost no oversight by others, including men
Worked with children around them
Summer: planting and harvesting
Hunting: dressing and preserving meat, treating skins for use
“The moral character of the Indians was . . . uncontaminated.” (211)
Loyal to spouses
Honest
Promoted chastity
Both men and women spent time teaching values to their children
A better example of moral living than white settlers? More Christian than the Christians?
Taken during the French and Indian War, Jemison replaced a brother taken in battle (203)
Natives killed and captured out of revenge for previous actions against them
Captured people took on the role of deceased persons: in family life, occupation, and status
Gender and age did not matter, only willingness to participate in the tribe
Expectations for the new citizen matched the tribe's perceptions of deceased persons
Was forced to marry an Indian, though this appears very rare (204)
Axtell suggests Jemison may have married willingly
Natives persuaded the captured to stay by good acts and equal treatment towards them, not compulsion
Rape and other acts were extremely discouraged. Those guilty of rape were judged by the community
Taken when she was 15, and did not fully assimilate for 3-4 years. (208)
“If I had been taken in infancy, I should have been contented in my situation.”
The older the captive, the harder it was to learn culture
The younger the captive, the easier it was learn language and customs, and forget their white background
The Senecas were “diligent in teaching me their language; and to their great satisfaction I soon learned that I could understand it readily, and speak it fluently.” (209)
Captives were quickly placed in families and “trained” for life in the tribe
By spending time with her “sisters,” Jamison learned basic housekeeping and farming skills, and even advise in finding a spouse
Working as an Indian woman “was not severe . . . probably not harder than that of white women” (211)
Almost no oversight by others, including men
Worked with children around them
Summer: planting and harvesting
Hunting: dressing and preserving meat, treating skins for use
“The moral character of the Indians was . . . uncontaminated.” (211)
Loyal to spouses
Honest
Promoted chastity
Both men and women spent time teaching values to their children
A better example of moral living than white settlers? More Christian than the Christians?
Friday, March 7, 2008
Natives & Newcomers, Chapter 4 & 5
Industrial Revolution
Innovation in manufacturing, mining, transportation, communications, commerce, and society
International trade
More goods available to the masses
Political revolutions
Allowed people to make more $, pay less taxes, trade with more people
Better roads = More, safer travel
Population growth
Farmers move to cities
Less Plague, more people
Agricultural Revolution
In Europe, new plants and growing techniques increased production (corn, potatoes, manure)
Commercial Revolution
1626: 8000 beaver skins sold in Fort Orange and New Amsterdam
1650s: 46,000 skins sold in Fort Orange alone
1620s: 10,000 skins sold by Hurons to Quebec
1640s: 30,000 skins
1750s: Cherokee hunters killed 12 deer/year
Why over-hunt? “Many Things which they wanted not before because they never had them . . . become necessary both for their use & ornament.” (107)
Supply & Demand
“The English have no sense; they give us twenty knives like this for one Beaver skin.” (107)
“The Indians ar[e] now so well seen Into our tradinge Commoditiies, that heare is litle to be got by yt.” (108)
Natives first wanted precise metal tools: axes, hatchets, awls, chisels, knives, hoes, kettles
Loose-fitting clothing is often not preserved
Natives created jewelry out of coins, thimbles, pins
Alcohol became a vital trading good
Changes
Europe became an Indian Wal-mart. Ben Franklin: “artificial Wants” (120)
Mirrors made men vain
Trade doubled while Indian populations halved
Indian “degeneration”
After raw materials depleted, “natives were left with nothing to sell but their land, their labor, or their military services” (118)
Massive debts; Indian “revitalization”
Chapter 5: Making Do - includes classwork not listed here
Examples of overhunting
Natives purchasing European goods
Mirrors
Clothing
Metal goods
Jewelry
“Artificial wants”
Trading strategies – both sides
Indian debts
Changing traditions
Indian burials
Indian foods
Native “Revitalization” attempts
Why did some Europeans not want to conquer Indian lands?
Innovation in manufacturing, mining, transportation, communications, commerce, and society
International trade
More goods available to the masses
Political revolutions
Allowed people to make more $, pay less taxes, trade with more people
Better roads = More, safer travel
Population growth
Farmers move to cities
Less Plague, more people
Agricultural Revolution
In Europe, new plants and growing techniques increased production (corn, potatoes, manure)
Commercial Revolution
1626: 8000 beaver skins sold in Fort Orange and New Amsterdam
1650s: 46,000 skins sold in Fort Orange alone
1620s: 10,000 skins sold by Hurons to Quebec
1640s: 30,000 skins
1750s: Cherokee hunters killed 12 deer/year
Why over-hunt? “Many Things which they wanted not before because they never had them . . . become necessary both for their use & ornament.” (107)
Supply & Demand
“The English have no sense; they give us twenty knives like this for one Beaver skin.” (107)
“The Indians ar[e] now so well seen Into our tradinge Commoditiies, that heare is litle to be got by yt.” (108)
Natives first wanted precise metal tools: axes, hatchets, awls, chisels, knives, hoes, kettles
Loose-fitting clothing is often not preserved
Natives created jewelry out of coins, thimbles, pins
Alcohol became a vital trading good
Changes
Europe became an Indian Wal-mart. Ben Franklin: “artificial Wants” (120)
Mirrors made men vain
Trade doubled while Indian populations halved
Indian “degeneration”
After raw materials depleted, “natives were left with nothing to sell but their land, their labor, or their military services” (118)
Massive debts; Indian “revitalization”
Chapter 5: Making Do - includes classwork not listed here
Examples of overhunting
Natives purchasing European goods
Mirrors
Clothing
Metal goods
Jewelry
“Artificial wants”
Trading strategies – both sides
Indian debts
Changing traditions
Indian burials
Indian foods
Native “Revitalization” attempts
Why did some Europeans not want to conquer Indian lands?
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