Colonial America

GEN 220 FINAL EXAM INFO

2009-04-26T21:03:00.000-07:00

Spring 2009

TAKE-HOME ESSAY - 50 pts.

Fifty points of your midterm is based on the following essay question. Don't forget to use detailed examples and proofread your work. This essay must be typed and handed in at the start of the exam.

Q.) Based on your reading of the book The Scratch of a Pen, describe three specific examples of the convergence of different cultures in North America and the impact of environmental and cultural factors in the adaptation of cultural groups in colonial North America.

IN-CLASS ESSAY - 50 pts.

You must answer one of the following essay questions in class. Books and notes are not allowed.

1.) The French and Indian War was affected by events or by people who never set foot in North America. Describe three of those events or people. What was their importance concerning the war? How did they change the war's progress or its outcome?

2.) Compare and contrast the Indian-European politics of the Florida Territory with that of the Louisiana Territory, demonstrating three differences or similarities. Did these leave a positive or negative effect on North Americans?

MULTIPLE CHOICE/MATCHING - 20 pts.

In class you will answer multiple choice questions, matching, or fill-in-the-blanks. They will be similar to your quizzes. They will be based primarily on the notes posted on the class blog. Each question will be worth two points.

SHORT ANSWER - 30 pts.

In class you will be required to write short definitions or descriptions of six of the terms below. The actual list given in class will be shorter than the one you see here. Remember to not only define the terms but discuss in detail their importance in our study of colonial America. Short answer choices not used in the short answer section will be used in the Matching section of the test.

Great Awakening
Dr. Wheelock
Fighting by proxy
Jeffrey Amherst
Gifts
Proclamation Line of 1763
Acadians
Crispus Attucks
"Indianized" settlers
Revisionist history
Salamanca, NY
Neutrals
Hudson's Bay Company
The Griffon
Fort Niagara
Fort Ross
Keepers of the Western Door
Witchcraft
Three Flags Day
Reduction
Handsome Lake

Crispus Attucks

2009-04-26T20:29:00.000-07:00

Considered the first casualty of the American Revolution
Is this him? "A Mulatto fellow, about 27 Years of Age, named Crispus, 6 feet 2 inches high, short cur'l hair, his knees nearer together than common."
Worked as a slave, a sailor, and a ropemaker
British sailors often worked second jobs cheaply, threatening the livelihoods of others.
The British Navy often “impressed” American sailors, forcing them into labor for years at a time

Biography
According to some evidence, Crispus’ father was African. “Crispus” may be an ancient Roman name
His mother may have been a Wampanoag Indian, from a “praying town” family near Natick, Massachusetts. “Attucks” and “Natick” may be native derivations of the word “deer.”
Attucks was rather large in stature and known for agitating others. He probably escaped from his master during a trip to join a whaling expedition
Not long before the Massacre, off-duty British soldiers attempted to enter a pub to find work

John Adams described those who started the riot as "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negroes and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs [sic]”
John Fiske, historian: “The soldiers did many things that greatly annoyed the people. They led brawling, riotous lives, and made the quiet streets hideous by night with their drunken shouts. ... On Sundays the soldiers would race horses on the Common, or would play `Yankee Doodle' just outside the church-doors during the services."

After the riot, John Adams defended the soldiers in court. He theorized that Attucks was a “rabble-rouser” who helped create the emergency
Attucks became a hero of the abolition movement, especially as the Civil War approached
During periods of war, Attucks becomes a symbol of hard work, patriotism, and devotion to the ideals of democracy
In recent decades, he is also an example of ethnic diversity (sometimes forced) in American history

Salem Witch Trials

2009-04-26T20:27:00.001-07:00

Changing Communities
Settlers first stayed in clusters for protection from animals, Indians, weather, and starvation
Settlers branched out with more colonial stability. Land became scarce with higher populations
Ports allowed for vital supplies as well as a place to trade goods
Some earned more money than others, creating upper and lower classes
Some colonists felt a loss of community or jealously against others

Social Upheaval
More established families had better, more profitable lands
Families lost power the farther they moved out
Wars with Indians decimated the male population
The numbers of widows and orphans increased
Women began to gain more landowning privileges
Many widows and orphaned daughters took work as servants for entrenched upper classes
In New England, many settlers immigrated for deeply held, conservative, religious beliefs

Witchcraft
European superstition held that witches could destroy property, possess others' souls, cause illness, and display “aggressive, unfeminine behavior”
1691: Several teenage girls asked an African slave woman, Tituba, to tell them their fortunes and talk about sorcery.
Later, the girls appeared to act abnormally. Citizens pressured them to say who possessed them
The girls named 2 white women and Tituba

Fear
Fear and hysteria led accusations to become evidence alone; “spectral evidence” allowed
In all of New England, 342 people were accused of witchcraft. One-third were women who had or would inherit large tracts of land
In Salem, 29 were convicted of witchcraft, 19 killed (14 women)
About 150 were imprisoned

Effects
An aversion to superstition and more emphasis on reason and rule of law
Newer generations were less willing to accept restrictions on personal behavior and economic freedom
Rise of the “Protestant work ethic.” Instead of focusing on religious piety, citizens worked hard for trade and economic gain
Settlers became more open to outside influences

Russians in America/Hudson's Bay

2009-04-26T20:24:00.000-07:00

Practically landlocked, Russia attempted to gain colonies that rivaled Europe
Vitus Bering was a Dutch explorer hired by the Russian navy to fight in the Baltic Sea
Afterwards, Peter the Great had Bering explore the easternmost reaches of the Russian Empire
Bering returned to Moscow in 1730, having reached the Kamchatka peninsula
Ivan Federov explored mainland Alaska in 1732, dying shortly after

Colonization
Russians established a profitable fur trade throughout the northern Pacific coast
The first permanent settlement was on Kodiak Island, 1786
Russia’s first joint stock company was chartered in 1799
Russian American Company existed until 1867, when the US bought Alaska
The RAC built settlements as far away as Hawaii
Most traders lived temporarily, or depended totally on the natives for pelts

Alutiiq
Russians depended on the Aleutian natives for trade, shelter, food, and geographical expertise
Many Aleutians do not consider themselves “Indian” or “Inuit”
Russian settlements only survived because of large Creole populations
The Tsar encouraged promyshlenikis to intermarry with Aleutians
By 1866, only 66 Russians lived in the colonies. Out of 1100 natives in the settlements, 900 were Creoles

Hudson’s Bay Company
Founded in 1666, the company explored the north and west parts of Canada and traded furs
To eliminate European competition, a series of forts and trading posts were built
In 1670, they were given a Royal Charter giving them sole trading rights around Hudson Bay. Competition flourished in surrounding areas.
The York Factory was built to enhance trade with natives and support exploration
Hudson’s Bay traders were the first Europeans to see prairies and bison

North West Company
Founded in Montreal in 1779, this rival to HBC controlled much of western Quebec
NWC also traded furs and blankets
Whereas the HBC tried to find an Arctic passage to Asia, the NWC continued farther south towards the Pacific
Frequent clashes with HBC interests sometimes led to open fighting
In 1821 the companies merged, controlling more than 3 million square miles of land

Russian American Company
RAC and HBC had years of territory disputes in the 1820s
When the US bought Alaska, RAC changed its identity to the Alaska Commercial Company
Later, it merged with the Hudson’s Bay Company
Then, it split off into a separate chain that took the name of the NWC. It still exists in rural areas
Some related companies include The Bay, Zellers, NWC, Simpson’s, Kmart
HBC is now owned by Lord & Taylor’s

Russian American Company

Remapping the Frontier

2009-04-26T20:23:00.000-07:00

Indian Country
War between England and France disrupted North American economies, even in the west
Indian tribes allied with either nation, not just for defense but for basic necessities
Great Lakes Indians saw Britain encroaching further west, siding with France
Indians in the East, often with old trading and political bonds, stayed with Britain
In between, some tribes stayed neutral (Delawares)

Power Structure
Some tribes did not work for victory on one side, but a balance of power between both
Indians would work alongside European troops, not under them
1763 meant the end of three-way politics. Tribes important as go-betweens were pushed out by Britain or ran way
Tribes used seasonal migration patterns to move in and out of new British settlements
Soldiers, settlers, swine slowly superseded squaws

Remapping the Frontier

By force:
Indian leaders killed or captured
Villages burned
Land sales signed under duress
Settlers overwhelm natives with overpopulation
By occupation
Are Indian tribes under colonial law, or are they foreign countries?
Tribes allowed for temporary European intrusions, but the Europeans would stay
Indians were bribed to sign treaties, even if they were not tribal leaders

Natives & Newcomers Ch. 6: Conversions

2009-04-26T20:21:00.000-07:00

Natives encountered 2 waves of Europeans:
Amicable, temporary business relationships
Conflicting, long-lasting struggles for control
Missionaries' thoughts before landing:
Natives were “very ready to leave their old and blind idolatries and to learn of us the right service and worship the true God” (146)
“savage,” “barbarian,” “degenerate”

Reduce, Reuse, Repent

Missionaries wanted to “reduce” the Indians from “savagery” to “civility”
In reducing one's Indianness, missionaries replaced traditional identities with Christian ones
What could define Indianness?
Spirituality
Tradition
Heirarchy
Ego
Ethnocentrism

Praying Towns/Reserves/Missions

To succeed, missionaries had to be involved in native life, not living parallel to it
Wilderness settlements welcomed natives
Permanent dwellings and institutions
Farms
Churches and clergy
Schools – instruction in Europeanness
Christian doctors
Trading posts

How to win friends . . .

Show you are not a threat
Adoption into a family or tribe
Change name
Learn language/dialect
Communicate to children
Earn trust through gestures of equality
Minor similarities in dress and speech
Join hunting parties
Taking part in local rituals
However, no intermarriage
Witchcraft?

. . . and influence people

Make sure individual natives are not a threat
Competition with shamen. Witchcraft?
Invite natives into “family of God”
Relate to local religious beliefs
Christ as the “Master Spirit” or “Creator”
Have natives adopt Christian names
Teach European languages
Create schools with religion & language classes
Gestures of equal civility
Inhabit property year-round, farm
Take part in church, holiday services
However, no intermarriage

“Civility”

Hardline converters often failed, or worse
Missionaries could change native faiths, but “ways of life” were more difficult
Marriage
Sitting still in class
Fasting
“In large measure, whatever success the Jesuits enjoyed was gained not by expecting less of their converts, as the English accused, but by accepting more.” (163)

Louisiana and Lord Amherst

2009-04-26T20:19:00.000-07:00

Treaty of Fontainebleau - 1762
Secret treaty between France and Spain
Spain given Louisiana and New Orleans
Treaty of Paris, 1763:
Britain takes Louisiana east of the Mississippi
Spain takes west Louisiana
See “British Indian Territory” pg. 166
French citizens fled from British control, only to find they were now ruled by the Spanish
German and Creole (early Louisianan) citizens rebelled against the Spanish in 1768, but were quickly put down
Treaty of San Ildefonso - 1800
Secret treaty where Spain gave western Louisiana back to Napoleonic France
The transfer also confirmed a previous treaty that allied Spain and France against Britain

Three Flags Day
3/9/1804: Spain officially hands Louisiana over to France
3/9/1804: France officially hands Louisiana over to the US in the Louisiana Purchase
None of these treaties accurately defined where Louisiana was (see pg. 167)
1804: US's Lewis and Clark explore

Where was Louisiana?
Generally, Louisiana was the Mississippi River system west of the Appalachian Mountains and south of the Great Lakes
Unlike French settlers in Quebec, French Louisiana consisted of settlers who assimilated into Indian cultures and families
Sparsely populated – both French and Indian
French depended on Indians for food and furs, making alliances
British could not control British settlers. How could they control French ones?

St. Louis

Founded in 1764 by French-speaking traders from New Orleans
Traders used old alliances and kinship bonds to trade with Midwestern natives
Though created through Spanish rule, St. Louis attracted French settlers fleeing from the British
Became the capital of “Upper Louisiana”
“It grew up speaking French, and its new imperial guardian made no attempt to change it” (130)

Lord Amherst (p. 26)
Over two dozen tribes traded with the French near St. Louis
Even though the British controlled trade and produced trade goods, the French did the trading
Jeffrey Amherst, British Commander-in-Chief, tried to force new trade alliances
He stopped giving gifts, upsetting traditional trade practices
Several times he suggested infecting Indians with smallpox to “Extirpate this Execrable Race” (also see p. 73)

In the 7 Years War, Amherst conquered Montreal and Quebec City. To disgrace the defeated French, he burned their flags
“Amherst viewed an empire as something to be governed, not negotiated and cultivated” (69)
Without good trading partners, Indians could not get needed weapons for hunting/defense
Amherst also demanded the return of prisoners, even “Indianized” ones
The British sent Amherst back home for fouling up British-Indian relations

Dr. Wheelock's Little Red School

2009-04-26T20:18:00.000-07:00

“For the education & instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for the civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences” (174)

Emerged out of the Great Awakening
Emotional attachment to religion
Focus on proselytization
Propagation through missionary work
In early attempts, Wheelock found Indians ungrateful for his work on them
Some whites thought natives could not be converted without force
Others argued that conversion would still not make them equal with whites, only blacks

Wheelock's impressions

Indian boys were:
Lazy
Did not use furniture
Wore shabby clothes
Were unruly
Think only about the present
Ate a lot, but had no table manners
Goal was “to save the Indians from themselves and to save the English from the Indians”
While capable of teaching his students, their “character” did not change

Native Impressions
At first, a change to learn foreign language and cultures, as well as trades
Children were beaten and yelled at for minor infractions
Emphasis on farming was less like education and more like hard labor
Indians were treated as inferiors, even by English boys their age

The End
Funds came from Europeans in Europe
Europeans in America doubted the school's success
Natives grew increasing upset at student treatment, pulling children out of school
Only 11 Indian students ever graduated

Florida

2009-04-26T20:16:00.000-07:00

A weak Spanish colony with few settlers
To encourage growth, Spain offered freedom to runaway British slaves
Britain created Georgia as a buffer between the colonies and Spain
Spain created Fort Mose in 1738, a town of free blacks north of St. Augustine, to buffer between itself and Britain
Small French colonies also sprung up, threatening Spanish Florida further. Spain was attacked often by France and Britain

Attacks
Pirates and Indian slaves also attacked Spanish settlements.
To survive, the Spanish allied with the Apalachee tribe
Spain continued the mission system to convert freedmen and Indians to Catholicism
Britain, realizing the growing southern threat, allied with the Creeks and attacked the Apalachees. The tribe disbursed and many became slaves

1763
Spain
1763: Britain wins 7 Years War, takes Havana, Cuba from Spain
Spain trades Florida to get Cuba back
Florida becomes British, split into East and West colonies. Thousands of Spanish flee
Apalachee
Defeated by war and disease, Apalachees and other tribes were adopted into local nations
Many moved to present-day Alabama and Louisiana
Apalachees, escaped slaves, and Creeks merged to form a distinct Seminole nation
“tinctured with
Spanish civilization”
(p. 109)
Exiles and Expulsions
England became Britain after merging with Scotland in the early 1700s. East and West Florida, the British Caribbean, and Quebec all had Scottish governors (156)
To encourage growth, Britain offered large land grants to Florida settlers, more if settlers brought slaves (157)
See the peace conference on p. 102, involving the Creek, Cherokees, and Chocktaws

The British hoped settlers would move to Florida or Nova Scotia instead of crossing the Appalachians (94)
The Land Proclamation of 1763 attempted to keep settlers under control and protect the peace between European and Indian empires (map 95)
Previous negotiations made Creeks the most powerful of regional tribes, but by 1763 they had enemies and factions

Floridian Trade
Seminoles traded via canoe throughout the Gulf of Mexico: deerskins, honey, dried fish
British and Spanish colonies traded coffee, rum, sugar, tobacco
The Proclamation Line kept settlers away but encouraged trading licenses
Deerskins were in high demand. Indians rapidly depleted deer populations
More interdependence on international trade led to dependence on foreign goods. Lack of resources led to poverty and social unrest

Men, Women, Alcohol

2009-04-26T20:15:00.000-07:00

Excessive drinking amongst natives led to:
Injury
Fights
Poor trade decisions
Poverty
Temperance and reorganization
Christian Indians
American missionaries
Prophets and spiritual leaders
The US Government wanted to “civilize” natives. Alcoholism was “uncivilized,” therefore trade must be stopped
Women
Alcohol trade represented and altered female roles in native life
Women held roles in native governments, allowing them to control trade
Women were “go-betweens” bringing liquor from the market to home
Women controlled food production, including grains making alcohol
As time progressed, male-dominated Americans traded with native men instead

Why drink?
Delicious
Drunkenness used in mourning rituals
A gateway to the spiritual world
In some nations alcohol used for dowries
Europeans used liquor to attract traders, then to get the best deal out of them.
Alcohol was increasingly used as currency: 60%-90% of fur trade done in liquor
Gift-giving for trade
Encouraged Indians “to hunt and pay their debts”
White drinking
Whites appeared to have a higher tolerance: “the art of getting drunk”
Whites consumed five times more liquor, but in moderation
Indians drank alcohol until it was gone, a process that could take an entire tribe and several days
Drinking became associated with poor immigrants, crime, and secularism
US banned alcohol trade to Indians in 1802

Missionaries
Christian revival movements entered the frontier, emphasizing temperance
Indian prophets had similar motives and practices
Indian prophets were mostly men, the liquor trade controlled mostly by Indian women
“Backsliding” led to social failures, deaths (6x)
Conversions and temperance revivalists tempered the political and economic agency of native women

Indian Temperance
Handsome Lake was a prophet and temperance advocate for the Iroquois; thought alcohol should be for whites only
Beate of the Delawares pushed reforms
Female respected by some leaders
Also accused of witchcraft
Many women pushed for traditional values
Harder because she's a woman?
“Perhaps the liquor trade continued because alcohol provided many Indians with something that the government could not: a sense of power or a fleeting respite from their troubles” (447)

1763

2009-04-26T20:14:00.000-07:00

The Peace of Paris ended the Seven Years' War (9 years, AKA French & Indian War)
Britain wins, taking all mainland claims in North America
Britain had allied with Germany (Hanover), Prussia, Portugal, Iroquois
France had allied with Russia, Sweden, Austria, Germany (Saxony), Spain, Hurons

British aims
Britain feared French control of Ohio territory would strangle their eastern colonies.
Without colonies, France only threatened continental Europe
Quickly they gained the favor of local Indians to fight by proxy
Should Britain defeat France or completely destroy it?
France allowed to keep islands in Caribbean, Newfoundland, and their Senegal colony

1759: Turning Point
British take Quebec
French Atlantic fleet destroyed
Spain felt threatened. Would Britain take South America too? Joined up with France
Britain invades Spanish Cuba, then the Philippines
Before the peace treaty, France secretly gives western Louisiana to Spain

Effects
Britain conquered Canada. The American colonists no longer needed protection from Britain, and the attempt by Parliament to tax the colonists to help pay for the war sparked the American Revolution.
French Quebec colonists were given 18 months to leave; some went to Maine and New Orleans
France and Spain entered a naval arms race. Stronger Bourbon navies made American victory in the Revolutionary War possible.

Debts France incurred in this war and the American Revolution helped cause the French Revolution. The humiliation of the army led to reforms later used by Napoleon.
Prussia survived the war, becoming an important European power. Frederick the Great became one of the most powerful rulers. In 1870 Prussia united Germany.

Russia showed itself to be a major power capable of enormous influence.
Smaller states like The Netherlands and Saxony were becoming increasingly vulnerable.
Spain confirmed that it was a weak state with minimal military power.
While Great Britain, France, and Russia solidified their stance in the world, German and Italian peoples floundered

Britain confirmed itself as the world's dominant naval and economic power
Britain became the dominant power in India, eventually conquering all of it. France slowly left their Indian colonies
Massive war debt by world powers eventually led to worldwide economic collapse
Some non-"Eurocentric" historians believe British control of India made the Industrial Revolution possible
Controlled trade of textiles and dyes
Built Indian railroads, canals, telegraph systems

Mary Jemison, Part 2

2008-04-23T17:27:00.000-07:00

POV

Accounts of the past are subjected to their time, place, and their authors' perception and motives
Future versions of events are seen through similar lenses
“Captivity and Conversion,” Hilary Wyss
“To be heard in the dominant culture, then, Natives must often negotiate story lines written about them with little regard for their particular experiences.”

Final Words

Narratives and conversion stories memorialized native cultures for Europeans
Stories showed how “progress” removed or replaced Indians
When Mary Jemison's narrative came out, segregation was national policy.
Races were separated; she must be Indian or white
A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, 1824, edited by James Seaver

James Seaver

Emphasized “the captive's commitment to Anglo-American culture”
Focused on the cultural and racial differences
Faced and eventually overcome by captives
Captives return to the white settlement
Thrilling, shocking details of frontier hardships
Transformation is feared and struggled against
The problem of "backsliding" or returning to a former way of life haunts the narrative

“A Narrative of the life of Mrs. Mary Jemison, who was taken by the Indians, in the year 1755 [sic],when only about twelve years of age, and has continued to reside amongst them to the present time. Containing an account of the Murder of her Father and his Family; her sufferings; her marriage to two Indians; her troubles with her children; barbarities of the Indians in the French and Revolutionary Wars; the life of her last husband, etc.; and many Historical Facts never before published”

"Strange as it may seem, I loved him!"

Specifically commissioned by some "gentlemen of respectability" to record her narrative not only to preserve certain historical facts but also to "perpetuate the remembrance of the atrocities of the savages in former times"
What about gender roles?
-Women expected to be passive
-Jemison becomes a victim of circumstance
-Biography will teach "pity for the bereaved, benevolence for the destitute, and compassion for the helpless"

Fragility of Conversion

Saw white people a year after capture. Senecas wanted to keep her, hid her away
Some Senecas considered her a witch
Some accused her of having an affair after birthing white babies
Adopted spiritual outlook of the Indians: “connection to the land, to agriculture, and especially to corn reveals important elements of Seneca belief in her life

Mary Jemison

2008-04-10T15:38:00.000-07:00

Mary Jemison lived in the Genesee Valley with the Seneca nation from her capture at 15 until her death at age 90.

Taken during the French and Indian War, Jemison replaced a brother taken in battle (203)
Natives killed and captured out of revenge for previous actions against them
Captured people took on the role of deceased persons: in family life, occupation, and status
Gender and age did not matter, only willingness to participate in the tribe
Expectations for the new citizen matched the tribe's perceptions of deceased persons

Was forced to marry an Indian, though this appears very rare (204)
Axtell suggests Jemison may have married willingly
Natives persuaded the captured to stay by good acts and equal treatment towards them, not compulsion
Rape and other acts were extremely discouraged. Those guilty of rape were judged by the community

Taken when she was 15, and did not fully assimilate for 3-4 years. (208)
“If I had been taken in infancy, I should have been contented in my situation.”
The older the captive, the harder it was to learn culture
The younger the captive, the easier it was learn language and customs, and forget their white background

The Senecas were “diligent in teaching me their language; and to their great satisfaction I soon learned that I could understand it readily, and speak it fluently.” (209)
Captives were quickly placed in families and “trained” for life in the tribe
By spending time with her “sisters,” Jamison learned basic housekeeping and farming skills, and even advise in finding a spouse

Working as an Indian woman “was not severe . . . probably not harder than that of white women” (211)
Almost no oversight by others, including men
Worked with children around them
Summer: planting and harvesting
Hunting: dressing and preserving meat, treating skins for use

“The moral character of the Indians was . . . uncontaminated.” (211)
Loyal to spouses
Honest
Promoted chastity
Both men and women spent time teaching values to their children
A better example of moral living than white settlers? More Christian than the Christians?

Natives & Newcomers, Chapter 4 & 5

2008-03-07T04:56:00.000-08:00

Industrial Revolution

Innovation in manufacturing, mining, transportation, communications, commerce, and society
International trade
More goods available to the masses
Political revolutions
Allowed people to make more $, pay less taxes, trade with more people
Better roads = More, safer travel
Population growth
Farmers move to cities
Less Plague, more people

Agricultural Revolution

In Europe, new plants and growing techniques increased production (corn, potatoes, manure)
Commercial Revolution
1626: 8000 beaver skins sold in Fort Orange and New Amsterdam
1650s: 46,000 skins sold in Fort Orange alone
1620s: 10,000 skins sold by Hurons to Quebec
1640s: 30,000 skins
1750s: Cherokee hunters killed 12 deer/year

Why over-hunt? “Many Things which they wanted not before because they never had them . . . become necessary both for their use & ornament.” (107)
Supply & Demand
“The English have no sense; they give us twenty knives like this for one Beaver skin.” (107)
“The Indians ar[e] now so well seen Into our tradinge Commoditiies, that heare is litle to be got by yt.” (108)
Natives first wanted precise metal tools: axes, hatchets, awls, chisels, knives, hoes, kettles
Loose-fitting clothing is often not preserved
Natives created jewelry out of coins, thimbles, pins
Alcohol became a vital trading good

Changes

Europe became an Indian Wal-mart. Ben Franklin: “artificial Wants” (120)
Mirrors made men vain
Trade doubled while Indian populations halved
Indian “degeneration”
After raw materials depleted, “natives were left with nothing to sell but their land, their labor, or their military services” (118)
Massive debts; Indian “revitalization”

Chapter 5: Making Do - includes classwork not listed here

Examples of overhunting
Natives purchasing European goods
Mirrors
Clothing
Metal goods
Jewelry
“Artificial wants”

Trading strategies – both sides
Indian debts
Changing traditions
Indian burials
Indian foods
Native “Revitalization” attempts
Why did some Europeans not want to conquer Indian lands?

New York City notes

2008-02-15T09:19:00.000-08:00

New Amsterdam

Early settlers only wanted to trade furs, expecting to be fed and housed by the West India Company
The Company turned to Puritan settlers to start farms (“patroonships”) and bring families
Administration was inept or corrupt. Many were fired for losing money or stealing
The Company hired Walloons, English, French, Irish, Swedish, Danish, German, and other workers
Slaves could own land, testify in court, bear arms, and attend church
Some slaves received “half-freedom” to run their own farms later in life
Intercourse with “heathens, blacks, or other persons” was banned
Liquor sales rivaled fur sales in the early city. Most crimes were the result of drunkenness and a majority male population
The female minority was described as “utterly chaste and shamefully promiscuous” and “exceedingly addicted to whoring”
Leaders allowed in settlers from more restrictive Puritan towns in Massachusetts, as well as Quakers

Lenapes

Disease and settlers depleted the Lenape people by 90 percent
Mohawks and Mahicans took advantage of the weak Lenape, demanding wampum for tribute
Pequot War (1637): New England colonies took control of wampum production on Long Island
Dutch and New England forces wiped out almost all Lenapes by 1645 by raiding villages
Meanwhile, the Dutch faced competition from Spain and Portugal, putting pressure on profits

Natives & Newcomers Ch. 3

2008-02-15T09:13:00.000-08:00

How much different are Indian/European interactions between the 1500s and 1700s
Problems in studies:
Most documents are from European invaders, not natives
Centuries of bias and ethnocentrism
“We have come to see with virtually new eyes that the Indians discovered Columbus and his world as surely and as importantly as he did them and theirs.” (15)

European concepts of “Others”

Long history of travel and trade (e.g. Marco Polo)
Sketchy sources mixed with superstition and myth
Greek and Roman gods
Biblical narratives
Indians became heathens and sinners
Compared Indians to “savage” Europeans (e.g. The Irish)
Though mostly peaceful, Europeans often used a show of force to prove equality or superiority

Indian concepts of “Others”

Most Indian groups explored little
Envisioned “Others” as equals or gods
Animals, plants also had spiritual characteristics
Humans must interact peacefully with the world around them. Spirits would help or hurt them.
All encounters began with gift-giving
Prophesies suggested men of white would arrive, or that tribes would be destroyed
Awkward
Europeans “drank blood and ate wood”
Indians kept bits of colored cloth, broken materials out of curiosity
Indians argued new land claims and name changes
Humans or animals?

Children were given up to Europeans
-Political marriages
-Children learned languages faster
-The official seal of trade or peace agreements

Americans were also kidnapped out of curiosity:

Freak shows
Pseudo-intellectual exhibits
To impress leaders (and get more money from them)
Fame
Amusement
To charge admission
Women and children easier to catch
Most die
Some returned able to speak pidgin tongues

Natives & Newcomers Ch. 2 notes

2008-02-12T12:54:00.001-08:00

Communication Breakdown

Whites needed to communicate
For trade
To find gold
To find land routes
To hunt wild animals
To convert natives to Christianity
“We come in peace”

Over 200 Indian languages
Many were similar, but with widely varied dialects
European languages were similarly related
How could Indians/Europeans recognize singular or different languages?
Related ideas using:
--Imitation
--Music
--Symbols
--Gifts/food
--Facial expressions/body language
--Sign language

Thinking they thought that . . .

Early European explorers impressed their own ideas of what they wanted the Indians to say over what they actually said
The Europeans are gods (p. 50)
The Europeans are in Asia
The natives will show them where gold is
The Indians have no religion or laws (p. 51)
The Europeans are free to take all the land they want (p. 52)

First words
“I don't understand”
“Friend”
“Chief”
Jargon: specific words used for specific purposes.
Pidgin: simplified words put together for basic communication.
Simplified words from Indian and European languages were used together for trading and politics

Natives and Newcomers, Chapter 1

2008-02-06T05:43:00.000-08:00

Fun Facts from Chapter 1

Some Americans thought Europeans were gods because they weren't interested in having sex with their women
Some Europeans compared Americans to the Irish because the Irish were the most uncivilized people they could think of
Americans tried showing respect for Europeans by carrying them on piggyback
Pipe smoking parties lasted about three days
Americans who had never seen swords before often grabbed them by the wrong end
Europeans remixed Indian war dances with fiddles

Imagining the “Other”

“Other”
Different from “us”
Similar to other “others”
What to compare “them” to?
Marco Polo and the East
Africa and the Canary Islands
Classical mythology
Biblical literature
Past and modern “barbarians”
“While Europeans found “others” to be different and usually inferior, the “others” the Indians knew tended to be similar or superior.” (19)

Interaction

N. Europeans may have been fishing off the coast of Newfoundland for over 1000 years
Religious beliefs lead to desires for different goods
Pirates worked privately or for government organizations
Both native Americans and Europeans traded objects of lesser value in their society for objects of greater value
The arrival of European fur traders did not create internal trade systems, transportation routes, or trade alliances. They simply turned regional economies into globalized ones

Interdependence

Kidnapping and forced acculturation occurred at the same time as voluntary cultural exchange
Interdependence led to the destruction of distinct “Indian” and “European” identities
If you want to be on good terms with anyone, give them a gift
Water transportation is the most conducive to trade
Demands for goods traded between Indians and Europeans were often created by 3rd parties 1000s of miles away

Most exchanges were completed by experts in trade, facilitating the efficiency and economy of suppliers and customers
All people are inherently greedy, corrupt, curious, and racist
Governments and companies reform themselves to improve their competitive edge

When learning a language, it's best to know the words for:
Greetings
Finding things and locating leaders
Buying/selling
Getting directions
Getting laid and swearing

Maritime Revolution notes

2008-02-03T21:06:00.001-08:00

Polynesians settled west into the Pacific
Little is known; few records
Descendants live in places as far apart as New Guinea, Hawaii, and Easter Island
Malayo-Indonesians settled east into the Indian Ocean
Descendants live in places as far apart as Madagascar and China
Evidence that colonies were planned, not discovered by accident
Why were these groups better at seafaring?
Technology was simple but effective

Zheng He (1371-1435)

Chinese Muslim explorer under the Ming Dynasty
The early Ming Dynasty wanted to “re-establish China's predominance and prestige abroad”
Zheng He travelled to important ports in the Indian Ocean
Explored the coasts of the Middle East and Africa
Brought lavish gifts to foreign rulers
Created demand for Chinese goods
Stimulated interest in the Chinese empire
Atlantic Exploration
Vikings attacked ships and shores throughout northern Europe
Warmer temperatures made navigation easier
Settled Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland before 1000 CE
Mansa Muhammed of Mali reportedly died trying to cross the Atlantic in the 1300s
Amerindian voyagers settled the Caribbean Sea (Cuba, Jamaica) by 1000 CE

Why Explore? (Spain)

Iberian rulers (Spain and Portugal)
Money. Trade between port cities and foreign lands
Religion. Competition between Christianity, Islam, and Judaism
Curiosity.
Ferdinand and Isabella, 1492
January 2: Kicked out the last Moorish (Muslim) king of Granada
March 30: Ordered all Jews out of Iberia unless they become Catholic. Many leave for Ottoman Empire
August 3: All Jews officially expelled. Christopher Columbus begins his voyage
October 12: Columbus lands in West Indies

Why Explore? (Portugal)

Wanted to protect strong fishing economy
History of anti-Muslim warfare
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Muslims
In 15th century, Morocco was politically weak
Henry the Navigator wanted to:
Make Africans Christian
Join up with Christian leaders already in Africa
Start an awesome Crusade against the Ottomans
Henry also started an important navigation school, bringing together centuries of technology and knowledge

European Navigation

Ships: caravel, possibly from the Arab qârib or Roman cara bella
Cartography (maps)
Technology: instruments such as the astrolabe
Exploration made profit through the trade of slaves and gold
Eventually Portugal landed on the eastern tip of Brazil

Intro Notes

2008-01-29T13:16:00.001-08:00

The World Before 1500

3 Major Periods:
Antiquity
Middle Ages
*Modern Times (1500-present)
“All historical periods were shaped by natural environment and human technology”
“The capacity to create and change material and intellectual culture marked the beginning of human history”

Civilization and Identity

Domestication of animals
Beginnings of agriculture
Unrelated peoples settle together in “cradles of civilization” where resources were plentiful
Technological knowledge: how to grow crops, how to build objects
Spiritual study: What is the meaning of life? How should I live my life?
Formation of governments/public works
Trade, war, and multicultural interaction

Atlantic System:
Also known as the Triangular Trade
System of moving goods and people between Europe, Africa, and America
Includes food, slaves, gold

Chartered Companies
Companies got a monopoly in one part of the world, while empires were guaranteed the companies would eliminate foreign competition
Dutch West India Company; Royal African company

Merchantilism:
Colonies exist for the mother country's economic benefit
Capitalism: financial institutions lend money to make profitable investments

English in America

2007-10-02T06:20:00.000-07:00

England before colonization:

Civil war. Kings and Parliament fought for years
Protestant Reformation
Radical Protestantism grows in Europe, especially Calvinism
Anglican Church
Henry VIII could not produce a male child and wanted to divorce (annul) his wife, daughter of the King of Spain
The Pope would not grant the annulment, so Henry started his own church
Calvinist “Puritans” flee from forced involvement in Henry's Anglican church
England vs. Spain
England was anti-Catholic, therefore anti-Spain
Spain was anti-Protestant, therefore anti-England
The new English navy robbed and fought the older, more powerful Spanish navy, and won
England's first colonies sucked and failed.

Why did the English become interested in moving?

Political instability
Religious freedom
Poverty
Massachusetts
Pilgrims left England for Holland to save their religion, then left Holland for America to save their culture
Created the Mayflower Compact because they landed in the wrong place and had no legal government. 1st Constitution in America
“City on a hill” tried to create a community without temptations or spiritual distractions
Unlike earlier settlements, whole families came
Unlike earlier, better climate and resources

Puritan culture

Unlike England, people were not forced to go to church
Church members had to prove they were saved by God (Calvinism)
Male church members could vote
Town meeting halls and churches were often the same building
If citizens were distractions to the Puritans, they were kicked out of town

Rhode Island

Roger Williams questioned the legality of the colony, its connections to England, and its unfairness towards natives
Antinomianism – freedom from law (church law)
Anne Hutchinson said that God spoke directly to her, not through the church or Bible
Directly questioned legal authority
A talking woman! With ideas? That can't be good.
She and her followers also went to Rhode Island
Religious and political leaders in Massachusetts settled farther down shore to (now) Connecticut
New Hampshire had more distant ties to Massachusetts and became its own colony.
Maine was claimed by Massachusetts, though sparsely populated. It became its own state in 1820.

Characteristics of New England states:

Homogeneous demographics
Settled for religious reasons
Church and state were closely related
Stable communities with families and laws
Population centers with meeting places
Easy access to water for trade and travel
Independent spirit & distinct cultural identity

Southern Colonies: Virginia

Named after Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen
Joint-stock company:
Investors got a piece of land in VA, share of profits
English interest in moving:
Overcrowding in England, lack of jobs
Many move to London but cannot find work
Jamestown was a good place for a fort, not a colony
Why Chesapeake colonies failed
Attacks by natives
Disease (mosquitoes, etc.)
Swamps
Bad water
Unrealistic expectations
Selfish, not selfless, settlers
Lack of food
Lack of supplies
Little agricultural knowledge
How does the colony make a profit?

Tobacco

A weed – grows easily
Sudden, high demand in Europe
Headright:
Land was given to those who paid their own way to Virginia, but even more land when paying others' way
Indentured servitude, then slavery
Few rich landowners, many indebted workers
Greed, individualism led Virginia to bankruptcy
King took over, but the colony's assembly kept meeting

Maryland: Catholic Refuge

Named after Queen Mary
Lord Baltimore sold land to make money. He created a hierarchy of rich landowners and less privileged, smaller landowners
Settlers refused to take part in an unequal system
Puritan settlers pressured the colony to tolerate their religious views
“Act concerning Religion”
All religion tolerated as long as it was Christian

Carolina

Named after King Charles I (Mary's dead husband)
Settled by supporters of the royal family
Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina
Rich landowners had one house of government
Smaller landowners had another house
Bicameral government: 2-house legislature
Land sold for profit. Landowners eventually grew rice for money
Many landowners came from plantations in Barbados, bring system of slavery with them

Georgia

Named after King George II
Bordering Spanish Florida, James Oglethorpe thought he could keep Spain from spreading north
English owners controlled all aspects of government, banning slavery and liquor
England tried populating the colony with debtors to keep them out of prison
Economically uncompetitive
Few settlers
Owners eventually gave up

Mid-Atlantic Colonies

New York

New Amsterdam became the trading center of New Netherland
Settlers were employees of the Dutch West India Co.
Settlers felt mistreated by their Company, often ignoring orders
Small, but multicultural. Weak government. Ethnic groups remained largely independent
England seized New Amsterdam, renaming it New York. Dutch get permission to stay and keep land

New Jersey

Duke of York gave part of New York to several supporters at the same time
Colony split into East and West factions
The arguing courtiers eventually gave up, selling the land to Quakers
One of the interested parties, William Penn, gave up and moved farther West
The King rejoined the bankrupt Jerseys so they'd survive

Pennsylvania

“Penn's Woods”
Originally colonized by Dutch until English kicked them out
Penn was a follower of the Quakers, and make his colony a Quaker haven
Pacifists
Believed everyone was equal
Everyone had an “inner light” from the God
Simplistic life and appearance
Pennsylvanians were supposed to have:
Liberty of conscience
Freedom from persecution
No taxation without representation
Due process of law
Delaware formed from southeast part of colony